| AMIDA TRUST | |
Occasional paper GROUP FACILITATION by Prasada Caroline Brazier |
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This pack focuses on facilitation of unstructured groups. In fact the distinction between structured and unstructured groups is not a rigid one. A groupworker who uses exercises needs a facilitative style in order to draw out the significance of the response which the activities have evoked. A groupworker who works in a less structured way, may nevertheless from time to time see opportunities to extend a theme through a led activity. It is the combination of space and structure which is important. The distinction between counselling skills and groupwork skills is also not as clear as is sometimes thought. Both require a deep empathic engagement with others, and the ability to apply sensitivity and creativity in working with material which is often very personal. At the same time the groupworker needs to be able to work on a number of levels simultaneously. To relate, to individuals, and to relate to the whole group. It is these specialised skills which are primarily set out in this pack. GROUP PURPOSE Groups come in many forms and have many purposes. This pack offers some basic principles and techniques which are intended to be adaptable to a range of situations. Groups may offer therapy or support, education or training. Groups generally come together with a purpose. This may be broadly or narrowly defined. Some groups, such as training groups, will have a fixed goal, others may be much more open to whatever process emerges. The purpose and possible goal of the group may be made clear to those joining the group, but this is not always the case. In some groups it may turn out that the groupworker's sense of the group's purpose is different from that of the group participants. PLANNING When a group is being set up it is important that the facilitator or facilitators are clear about their own intentions. At the same time, they may want to be flexible enough in their approach to allow the group to find its own way of working. Each groupworker must achieve a balance between pre-planned objectives and flexibility. Planning falls into the following areas: CONTENT METHOD PRACTICALITIES CONTENT: The group's purpose will give some indication of what its content may be. Depending on the style of group adopted, the group worker may need to do nothing, plan exercises and games, make practical arrangements or research a topic. METHOD: Groupworkers need to decide what style of group they are intending to run. For example if a group for young single mothers is planned, it is important to decide whether the group is likely to hold discussions, teach child-care, run social events, or offer therapy. Of course, several of these options may be possible. Publicity must reflect the intended style. PRACTICALITIES: Some groups are already in existence before the groupworker meets them, but in many cases the groupworker's first task is to recruit the group. Where this is the case, the way that people are recruited is very significant to the group that results. Firstly the purpose of the group needs to be clear. Then the groupworker needs to decide WHO will be in the group and HOW they will be recruited. A VENUE needs to be chosen, and TIMES and DATES decided on. The groupworker may also decide that some GROUND RULES should be set in advance, although this is not always a good idea. These may include whether the group will be closed or open in its membership (ie whether new members can join once the group has started.). There may also be COST involved. If this is the case it needs to be made clear in publicity material. PARTICIPANTS: It may be important to target certain people when setting up a group. Sometimes the group's purpose dictates its membership, or may be because the style of group is likely to appeal to certain people. Some groupworkers want to achieve a balance between group members with different needs or interests. PUBLICITY: Any publicity material or information distributed before a group needs to reflect the style of group that is envisaged. It is the first contact that member will have with the group, so will set the whole tone of it. It needs to contain both clear factual information and give a sense of what the group members may expect will happen. VENUE: The room that is used may influence the tone of the group. A bare cold room can make it a lot harder to provide a welcoming atmosphere. In choosing a venue think about atmosphere, comfort, privacy, space, noise, temperature, access, location, seating, lighting and any other facilities that are needed. It is also worth thinking about things that may put people off, such as being in a school or social services building, or being too close to home where they might be recognized. CLOSED OR OPEN?: Some groups have a fixed membership, and places are allocated in advance, often through a selection procedure, other groups take all comers at the first session, but then close membership. Some remain open throughout. Open membership will affect the dynamics of a group, and can often cause difficulties if people are sharing very personal material. UNSTRUCTURED GROUPS: All groups have structure. Starting and finishing times are structures. A circle of chairs is a structure. The groupworker's initial remarks provide structure. Commonly, however, groups which are facilitated, and do not make use of set activities or exercises are called unstructured. Unstructured groups offer space for members to explore issues, share feelings or experiences, build relationships, and find new ways of being together. Groups provide a microcosm of the wider community, and enable people to reflect upon the ways in which they relate to others. In some senses they can be seen as providing a laboratory situation in which both individuals and their interactions with others can be investigated and different behaviours can be tried out. In another sense they can be seen as places where people can be more "real" with each other than they can be elsewhere. It is this combination of experimentation and openness, combined with the separation from everyday life which gives groups their creativity and power. It also makes them places which can be challenging, scary or frustrating. Whilst this pack deals with facilitation of unstructured groups, even within this category, the facilitator's behaviour will influence the way the group runs. Whatever the facilitator does will consciously or unconsciously provide some structure. Basically there is a trade off in running groups between providing sufficient structure to make the group safe enough for its members and enabling it to find a direction, and providing space for spontanaiety, creativity and the expression of feelings and ideas. Facilitating groups demands a lot of skill from the groupworker. Not only does it require the empathic understanding of individuals, but also an appreciation of the whole group. Groups can be seen as having a life which is more than the sum of the individuals within them. Whilst this pack does not address issues of group process or dynamics in detail, an awareness of these factors is essential to the groupworker who is facilitating unstructured groups. THE CORE CONDITIONS: Dr Carl Rogers developed the theory now known as Person Centred Approach. This theory states that we all have a drive within us which enables us, given the right conditions, to develop in a way that offers us the greatest potential as human beings. This drive is termed the self-actualising tendency. Rogers identified three core conditions which needed to be present in the therapeutic relationship for psychological growth to occur. These are accurate empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard. Rogers saw these conditions as being important both in individual work and in groups, although the form of their expression is clearly different. ACCURATE EMPATHY: A deep understanding of another's world. Empathic understanding involves not only an appreciation of the story, but a sense of the emotions and beliefs which lie behind it. The therapist experiences the client's story "as if" experiencing it herself. In groups empathic understanding needs to be both of individuals and of the group as a whole. Whilst in one to one work, empathy is expressed constantly through empathic reflections, in a group such responses are often unnecessary and would take space from the group members. Empathy may be expressed by: * Occasional empathic responses to individuals who are having difficulty expressing something * Responses to individuals who have not been heard by the group. * Responses to silent members * Process comments * Suggestions of appropriate activities CONGRUENCE: this term describes the therapist's authenticity. The therapist does not play a role. The therapist does not manipulate. Congruence may be explicit, in that the therapist may express feelings or share thoughts, or it may be implicit in that the therapist's response hides nothing and is "from the heart". Explicit congruence can be important in modelling more direct ways of communicating. There are further comments on the subject of congruence in the section of this pack on Self Disclosure. UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD: the therapist needs at all times to strive for a positive attitude towards clients. This does not mean giving approval to every action the client speaks of. Indeed, it is more a matter of appreciating the underlying motivations, which at the deepest level are often very different from how they might appear. It is a quality of respect for the other person's humanity. In groups this attitude can be difficult to maintain. It is all too easy for the groupworker to get drawn into thr fray and lose appreciation for one or more group members. It can take some effort to reach an understanding of the group member who criticises others or attacks oneself, yet it is often this person in the group who most needs a positive response. Unconditional positive regard can be expressed explicitly to individuals or the whole group, or can be implicit in other responses. If the groupworker is feeling positive towards the group, tone of voice and facial expression will reflect this. Basic facilitation, whether of an individual or a group requires a very high level of concentration and personal involvement. The facilitator must give full attention to the person or group, and understand not only the factual content of what is said, but also the layers of feeling that accompany it. In particular it is important to recognise which parts of what is said carry the most emotional energy. The facilitator will not only be aware of the verbal content of what is said, but the facial and body cues, voice tone and other nonverbal clues to the unspoken meaning behind the words. The facilitator may reflect the content of what is said, highlight nonverbal material, or repeat significant words and phrases. In groupwork, the facilitator has a number of additional functions. Activities which might be among these include: TRACKING EMPATHIC RESPONSES TO INDIVIDUALS BOUNDARY MAINTAINANCE POSITIVE REGARD FOR GROUP (eg acknowledging its successes) POSITIVE REGARD FOR INDIVIDUALS (eg reframing negative statements) ARBITRATION MODELLING INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS JUDICIOUS SELF DISCLOSURE BRINGING OUT HIDDEN FEELINGS AND HIDDEN AGENDAS CREATING OPENINGS The facilitator's role will be different at different stages of the group. Initially the main focus will be in enabling the group to come together and build trust. Later it may be more concerned with gaining depth and insight, and expressing feelings. INTRODUCTIONS: The first stages of any group are highly significant to its subsequent development. Group members are likely to be looking for cues about what kind of group this is likely to be, and what sort of person the facilitator is. They will be concerned about whether it is going to feel safe to trust the group with personal details, and whether they are going to fit in with the other group members. The facilitator's opening words will be listened to intently. More importantly the tone will be noticed. Is this person caring, strong, retiring, dominant or nervous ? If the facilitator speaks at some length this may be reassuring to group members, particularly if some explanation is given of the purpose and process of the group. If the facilitator says little, this will allow the group maximum freedom in finding their own way of interacting. It will also carry the unspoken message "If you want something to happen, you'll have to make it happen". If the facilitator wishes to give the group space, she may use an opening such as "perhaps we could spend some time getting to know each other". Other facilitators prefer simply to say something along the lines of "Well we've got six sessions together...." GROUND RULES: In an unstructured group the facilitator will not normally introduce the idea of ground rules. This is not to say that the facilitator does not have a base line when it comes to, for example, violent behaviour, but the facilitator will have a trust that the group will find its own rules when they are needed. This principle is an important one. Simply saying that a session is confidential does little more than raise a false sense of security. Trust needs to be earned. The facilitator may, however, have a role in clarifying the rules and norms which emerge. Sometimes it is appropriate to foresee anxieties about trust, for example a facilitator might say at the end of a first session "I'm aware that there has been a lot of very personal sharing today, and I'm wondering how some people will feel about that when they get home." This lays the way open for discussion of trust and confidentiality which is meaningful. Occasionally a facilitator will need to step in and prevent someone being hurt. As the person present who is not involved in the process as participant, this boundary keeping role is important to group safety. It may be done by facilitating the feelings of the person being verbally attacked, or by drawing attention to what is going on. This requires some strength on the part of the facilitator. HELPING EVERYONE TO SPEAK: One problem which may arise in unstructured groups is the silent member. The facilitator needs to be aware of any group member who has not "got in". Most facilitators will make some attempt to contact a silent member before the end of the first session, as, if a group member has not spoken by this stage, it is likely to become increasingly difficult for that person to speak. It takes sensitivity to both respect someone's need for silence and offer an opening. Sometimes expressing concern is appropriate. Other times body language may suggest that the person has reacted to something that is being said. In this case the facilitator may say something along the lines of "It looks as if you have feelings about that." This acknowledges the person's presence in the group, and may offer an opening for them to speak if they want it. TRACKING: The groupworker needs to keep track of themes which occur as the group progresses. These may be individual themes, or group ones. When a new topic is introduced, the group member who first introduces it is likely to have done so because of a personal interest. Often, however, the group will pick up the topic and the originator may be left with a lot of thoughts or feelings which are unvoiced. The groupworker needs to assess when this has happened, and may check out with the person whether there is more that they wish to say. Tracking may also involve keeping track of themes which have been lost when the group has moved on. If a group member has been cut across by another, it is not always appropriate to interrupt immediately, but the group facilitator needs to remember the incident and may check out with the first person at a leter point in the group. Watching body language may reveal unfinished business. The facilitator may also notice if a group member has suddenly become silent, as this too may indicate that something has been left unsaid. TYPES OF INTERVENTION: The type of interventions which are made by the group facilitator will depend upon the individual style and on the training background of the facilitator. Broadly there are three levels at which the facilitator may respond to the group. Responses may be to individuals, to interactions between group members, or to the whole group. RESPONSES TO INDIVIDUALS: If the facilitator responds to an individual in the group, this will tend to increase the depth at which that individual talks about personal material. The effect on the group will be to evoke discussion of material connected with groupmembers' lives outside the group being discussed. A group in which this kind of facilitation predominates is sometimes called a sensitivity group. RESPONSES TO INTERACTIONS: Instead of responding to individuals, a facilitator may notice the way that one group member reacts when another speaks to them, eg "When John said that, you looked really angry". If the responses of the facilitator are to interactions between group members, then this will lead to more discussion of what is going on "here and now" in the group. A group in which these types of responses predominate is called an encounter group. RESPONSES TO THE WHOLE GROUP: Responses to the whole group are called process comments. These might include such comments as "I'm noticing that things feel really flat this evening" or "I am aware that a lot of mothering seems to be going on in the group today." Such comments need to be accurate, or they will be ignored. They may feel judgemental to the group. If they are accurate, they can be extremely effective in deepening the group process. Analytic and T groups use predominantly this style of intervention. SAMENESS AND DIFFERENCE: A facilitator may highlight similarities or differences between group members. CONGRUENCE: A facilitator may share his or her own feelings in response to the group. This does not mean that the groupworker starts to share personal material from outside the group, but rather shares feelings that may have resulted from empathy with the group. The effect of this is often very similar to the process comment, but is free of the judgemental quality. If the groupworker is unskilled, however, it can result in the group feeling confused and abandoned. CONFLICT: All groups experience conflict in some form. For some it is open confrontation between members, for others it may be hidden, emerging in indirect ways. Conflict is part of learning to live with differences within the group. Groups which do not go through a phase of resolving these differences are likely to have more difficulties later around intimacy, and may experience conflict in their late stages, when it can be quite destructive. A groupworker's role is often to allow conflict to be expressed in a way that is more open, whilst allowing group members to keep a basic respect for themselves and each other. The groupworker's own ability to cope with conflictual situations will affect the group's ability to go through this important phase. The groupworker needs to convey a sense that differences can be appreciated, not feared. Conflict may be expressed between individuals, between sub-groups, towards the facilitator, or towards one individual. This last instance usually contains a large element of scapegoating. Often there is a sense of conflict "looking for somewhere to happen", and a group member who is seen as different or difficult in some way may become the focus of hostility. In facilitating conflict, the groupworker needs to be mpathically engaged with both sides, and retain a supportive presence for all members of the group. HELPING THE GROUP TO FIND ITS OWN SOLUTIONS TO CONFLICT: The groupworker may help the group to find more enabling solutions, but should not take responsibility for what is going on. One way of doing this may be to facilitate those group members who try to arbitrate, or offer alternative ideas. BRINGING HIDDEN CONFLICT INTO THE OPEN: Hidden conflict is often apparent from body cues. A group member may pull a face, or catch another person's eye. Tone of voice may also imply hostility, as may talking about anger at people who are not in the group. A facilitator can bring this kind of hidden conflict into the open by drawing attention to the behaviour, eg: "When Jane said that, you looked irritated..." "I notice that you're talking about how angry you are when people talk too much, and I'm wondering if that's how you're feeling here..." FACILITATING DIFFERENCE: A facilitator may draw attention to the differences of opinion or feeling being expressed within the group. "So on the one hand, you feel ....., and Susan has just been saying that she feels...." Some group members may avoid differences, saying things like "Oh I feel just the same", and then going on to say the opposite of what has been said. Pointing out such discrepancies can bring difference into the open. SETTING BOUNDARIES: The group facilitator has an ultimate responsibility for setting boundaries. If anger is being expressed in ways that are damaging to other group members, or violence seems a possibility, this is not a good experience for either the person expressing the anger or the group. It is generally best if the group members set their own limits. Sometimes facilitating obvious discomfort with someone's behaviour can be sufficient eg "I notice you're looking quite upset, Mary, I guess you're not very happy with what Susan is saying" At other times the facilitator may need to step in, sometimes with some assertiveness. A congruent statement such as "I feel uncomfortable with what is going on" Can be enough. Other times a more authoritative statement, such as a reminder of any ground rules, may be necessary. Different facilitators will have different base lines but all need to make a judgement as to how much conflict is therapeutic, and in what form it may be expressed. It is generally agreed that physical violence has no place in therapeutic groups. KEEPING A BROADER PERSPECTIVE: The faciltator needs to remain above the battle. One aspect of this may be to focus on motives, feelings and aims, rather than on the positions being taken. RECOGNIZING TRANSFERENCE: When a group member experiences feelings such as anger or admiration towards another group member, or the facilitator, this may be an instance of transference. Transference is a complicated phenomenon, but in broad terms we may see it as the projection of our sense of one person (often a parent) onto another. In other words, for example, we may see all authority figures in the way that we saw our parents or teachers, or we may look for unconditional loving and nurturing from anyone who seems older and caring, in a way that echos our childhood need for parental love. A group member may recognize that something of this kind is occurring for example by commenting "You're just like my mother", but it is often the case that such connections are not recognized. Some psychodynamic methods make considerable use of transference. Most group workers will relate what goes on in the group to behaviour in relationships outside it. Sometimes when inappropriate anger is being expressed at another group member, it is useful for the group worker to bring transference issues into the open eg "You say that John remind you of your father, I'm wondering if you'd like to tell us something about your father" "You seem very angry with Sarah, and you've talked about how your mother never listened to you, I'm wondering if there's a connection." A group member may want to explore their feelings towards someone outside the group through expressive techniques, psychodrama, or talking. If expressive or action techniques are used, the groupworker needs to be sufficiently skilled to ensure that no-one is hurt. REMAINING NEUTRAL: It is essential that a groupworker remains neutral, and does not get drawn into taking sides, or joining in scapegoating a group member. It can be hard to recognize when this is happening. Supervision plays an important role in helping groupworkers to recognize times when neutrality is lost. If there are two facilitators, they may find themselves drawn into opposite factions within the group. ENDING: A group facilitator needs to be aware of the way that a group is approaching its ending, and to draw attention to behaviour associated with it. Groups approach endings in a variety of ways. Some behave as if the ending is not happening, or make plans for reunions or talk about the next group. In others there is a lot of talk about issues of loss and bereavement, but no reference to the group's end. Some groups recognize that the group is going to end and express feelings more directly. A facilitator needs to be aware of both the immediate feelings in the group, and the symbolism which these have for group members in terms of other experiences of endings. It may be important to remind the group as the ending approaches: "Here we are for the last time..." "I'm aware that there's been a lot of talk about loss, and this is our last session..." "We have five minutes left." A group facilitator may be seem as working from "inside" or "outside" the group. A facilitator who works "outside" does not share any personal material other than that which is an immediate experiencing of the group process. A facilitator who works "inside" will behave more as a group member, but retain a facilitative role towards other group members. Some group facilitators will combine elements of both ways of working, and may vary their style depending on the group. The decision to work "in" or "out" will be partly a matter of training and theoretical approach. If a facilitator works "in", there is a danger that they will become too caught up in their own material, and not be present for the group. There is also a danger of being caught up with group factions. If a facilitator works "out", there is a danger of being seen as cold and aloof, and the group may become hostile or defensive. When a groupworker does decide to disclose personal material, it is important that this does not compromise her position as facilitator. Whilst the amount of disclosure will vary, the groupworker's task, to be present for group members, does not. The groupworker should not be using the group to meet her own needs. Any personal sharing should be made in such a way that the groupworker remains present for the group. * Personal sharing should be a response to the group's need for authentic communication. * The sharing should, however be congruent and spontaneous, not contrived for the occasion. * The groupworker should remain in empathic connection with group members before and after the disclosure, and should be prepared to respond to whatever reactions may occur. * The group should have reached a stage of sufficient maturity to absorb the disclosure without loss of confidence. * The disclosure should meet the group's needs, not the worker's. * The disclosure should be brief and undramatised. There are three types of self disclosure which a facilitator may make: IMMEDIACY: disclosure of immediate reactions to things occurring in the group. HISTORY: disclosure of non-conflictual past experience. eg "I often felt inhibited when I first started this work." CURRENT ISSUES: disclosure of live issues or feelings, which may be affecting the groupworker's position in the group. eg "I know I'm not giving you my full attention today. My child went to hospital last might." Of these, immediacy is generally the most helpful, and sharing current issues is the most risky. A facilitator should always feel able to refuse to disclose personal material. It is often more appropriate to explore the thinking behind a question, rather than to answer it directly. Questions often reflect issues of trust. The question "Have you ever suffered from this problem?" may imply the question "can I trust you to understand me?". The groupworker may feel that it is appopriate to answer the question, but should also be aware of the second agenda. Many groupworkers work in pairs. This is often a more effective way of working, as it enables the tasks of groupworking to be divided. It is important that groupworkers spend time getting to know each other before the group starts. Whilst it is not essential that the groupworkers have the same approach, there needs to be a level of compatibility in their methods, and a shared sense of the purpose of the group. If there is conflict between co-workers, groupwork theory suggests that this will be reflected in the dynamics of the group. There are no hard and fast rules about how the work should be shared. It is best if some discussion has taken place in advance, but in the end much has to be worked out in practice. Some common ways of dividing it might be: * One groupworker leads the exercises, whilst the other watches the group dynamics and facilitates process. * Whilst one groupworker is focusing attention on an individual, the other has a whole group perspective. * One groupworker works "in" and the other works "out" * One groupworker may facilitate the other eg if one is struggling to understand something, or is being attacked by a group member. * One groupworker may focus on one aspect of the group, whilst the other keeps a more general awareness eg being aware of subgroups or pairings. These role divisions may be fluid. It is important that both groupworkers recognize that different styles of work are needed and take complimentary roles. Sometimes it may be appropriate to exchange positions, for example if one groupworker is suddenly drawn into an encounter with a group member, the other needs to switch attention to the group as a whole. What is important is that the co-workers are open with each other, and do not allow differences and resentments to remain unresolved. If the groupworkers have hidden agendas with each other, these may affect the process of the group. At the same time co-workers who know each other well and are able to discuss difficulties are likely to be more adaptable to each other, and model to the group constructive ways of relating. Co-workers may find themselves being treated in different ways by the group. Whilst these may be partly explained in terms of differences of style or personality, they may also give useful insight into the group's dynamics. For instance in a group which is exploring regressive feelings, one groupworker may find herself expected to take on a nurturing role, whilst the other is being treated more distantly, thus replicating traditional parental roles. PITFALLS IN CO-WORKING: Co-working is not always easy. Groupworkers need to spend time after sessions talking about the experience of working together. Common difficulties are: - GETTING INTO COMPETITION: This can happen if roles are not clear. It can also happen if both facilitators have active styles and consequently take up a lot of space in the group. - HAVING DIFFERENT AGENDAS: Disagreements are bound to happen from time to time, but if groupworkers start out with very different ideas about the group, they are unlikely to work well together. Sometimes differences only become apparent once the group is underway. If this happens, the issue needs to be talked about. - GETTING CAUGHT UP IN THE DYNAMICS OF THE GROUP: Sometimes groupworkers can find themselves caught up in different factions of the group. This may be obvious, but often it only becomes clear during discussion after the group or in supervision. If the groupworkers look at their own relationship this can help to identify when such a dynamic is emerging. - BEING SEEN AS GOOD AND BAD LEADERS: Sometimes a group will see one facilitator as the good facilitator and the other as bad. For the unwary it is easy for the groupworker in the good role to bask in admiration, while the other worker feels resentful or inadequate. In fact it is likely that the group is playing out particular dynamics, and may be putting both groupworkers into a parental role. The way the groupworkers handle the situation will depend upon their background and training, but whatever their approach, it is important that they maintain a steady position, and do not play into the roles. - HAVING THE SAME BLIND SPOTS: If two groupworkers frequently work together, they may have similar ways of seeing life. This may affect their perception of what is happening in the group. Supervision can play an important role in identifying such biases. Working with groups takes many forms. A groupworker needs flexibility, sensitivity, creativity, self-awareness and assertiveness. Groups are places where people can learn to like themselves better, to be more generous to others, and to behave differently. The possibilities for personal change are enormous. Working as a group facilitator is a highly skilled activity. It demands constant reappraisal of skills, and offers constant opportunities for further development of those skills. USEFUL SOURCE BOOKS: DAVID BRAZIER, A Guide to Psychodrama, AHP publications 1991 SHEILA ERNST & LUCY GOODISON, In Our Own Hands, Women's Press, 1981 CARL ROGERS, Carl Rogers on Encounter Groups, Harpers & Row, New york, 1970 CARL ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, Constable 1974 CARL ROGERS, On Personal Power, Constable 1978 CARL ROGERS, Freedom to Learn in the 80s, Columbus, 1983 P.C.J. Brazier |